Harvard University Library Open Collections Program: Women Working Open Collections Program Harvard University Library Women Working Women Working
"One Kitchen or Fifty?":
Conveniences, Cooperation, Consumption
*
The Tivolia Beater Women of the Future Community Kitchen Albany Home Building Co. Plan 1 Regiment of Cooks Selected Bibliography Related Learning Standards
FEATURED SOURCES EXPLORE FURTHER
"A Well-Lighted House" from Farm Homes In-doors and Out-doors (1881) by E. H. Leland.

This plan and book
Fig. 4, "A Well-Lighted House"
Farm Homes (1881)
Catalog record

More plans from this book
Fig. 5, for a small family
Fig. 8 awaits an added parlor
Fig. 10, "a western farm-house"

Illustrations
"A Milk Cupboard"
"A Home-Made Butter Worker"
Household Conveniences (1884)

Advertising
"De Laval Cream Separators" (1907)
The Ladies' Home Journal

Texts
"Milk and Butter"
Motherly Talks with Young Housekeepers (1873)

"Dairy and Bacon"
Our Farm of Two Acres (1865)

"The Dairy-Room"
"Farm Neighborhoods"
Farm Homes (1881)

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Click on the links in the right-hand column above for materials that describe, among other things, how large kitchens, pantries, and milk-rooms and the equipment they contained supported women's roles as food producers on their own farms and in their own households.

The pamphlet below advertised a beater intended to help housewives prepare meals more efficiently. Click the links in the right-hand column below for other tools and spaces designed to save women's time and energy.





From Use the Tivolia Beater: A Woman's Practical Invention ([18--]).

This trade catalog
Read more
Catalog record
Some student observations

More advertising
"Women, Spare Yourselves" (1900)
"Ideal Steam Cooker" (1903)
Woman's Home Companion

"The 'Universal' Bread Maker," "Food Chopper," "Cake Maker" (1905)
The Ladies' Home Journal

Photographs
"A Convenient Arrangement"
"Hot Water Within Easy Reach"
The Healthful Farmhouse (1906)

Some student observations on
"A Convenient Arrangement"


Illustrations
"Compartment Sink. Open."
"Compartment Sink. Closed."
Science in the Kitchen ([190-])

"A Poorly-Arranged Kitchen"
"The Same Kitchen, Properly Arranged"
Food Study (1917)

Texts
"A Handy Waiter"
Science in the Kitchen ([190-])

"Kitchen Conveniences"
Housekeepers and Home-Makers (1888)

"Domestic architecture as woman's occupation"
How Women May Earn a Living (1900)

All Unpaid household work

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From Women of the Future (1916) by Meta Lilienthal.

This text
Read more
Catalog record

More texts
"Introduction"
Woman and Socialism (1910)

"The Changing Status of Women"
The Task of Social Hygiene (1912)

"Changes Socialism Would Bring"
Woman and the Social Problem (1899)

"The External Results of the Woman Movement"
The Woman Movement (1912)

"Consumption (I)"
Human Work (1904)

All Socialism

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Some women and men believed that a few cooks working together in a central facility could prepare better-quality meals more efficiently than many individuals laboring in even the best-equipped separate kitchens. They hoped their proposals would free many women to choose other kinds of work. Arguments for and experiments in socialized and cooperative domestic work are featured above and below. Click the links in the right-hand column for additional examples.

"Community Kitchen, New York City" from For God, For Country, For Home (1920) by Bessie Rowland James.

This photograph and book
"Community Kitchen"
For God, For Country (1920)
Catalog record

More photographs from this book
"School Children in Community Kitchen"
"Demonstration Centre, TX"
"Community Cannery, NC"
"Community Cannery Inside"
"Canning Kitchen, NY"

Text from this book
"Home Economics in the War"

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"The New England Kitchen, Pleasant Street, Boston" from The Rumford Kitchen Leaflets (1899) No. 17.

This magazine and photograph
Read more
"The New England Kitchen" (2)
Catalog record
Some student observations

More photographs from this magazine
"The New England Kitchen" (1)
"The New England Kitchen" (3)
"Lunch Room in the Rumford Kitchen"

Texts
"Cooperative Housekeeping"
The World's Congress of Representative Women (1894)

"Public Kitchens"
Successful Family Life on the Moderate Income (1921)

"Food and Living Services"
Women Professional Workers (1921)

"Can Land Be Overloaded?"
Housing and Town Planning (1914)

"Apartment Houses"
House and Home (1923)

Plans: Apartment Houses
"Plans for Group Houses"
"Typical Floor Plan"
House and Home (1923)

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With words and with house plans, others argued against these socialist proposals. They thought women living in even the smallest houses should stay home and cook for their families in individual kitchens. Click on the links in the right-hand column below for more examples.

From Successful Family Life on the Moderate Income (1921) by Mary Hinman Abel.

This text
Read more
Catalog record

More texts
"The Workingman's Home"
Housing and Town Planning (1914)

"The Individualistic Era"
"The Factory System"

Industrial Housing (1920)

"Work-Center Trends"
Household Management and Kitchens (1932)

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Albany Home Building Co. (Albany, NY) Plan 1, c. 1900. From the Housing category of the Social Museum Collection.

This plan
Zoomable version (with photo and description)
Catalog record

More plans
Dennison Co. Plan 1
Dennison Co. Plan 2
Cornell Co. Plan A
Boston Dwelling House Diagram 1
Boston Dwelling House Diagram 2

All Housing of Working People
All Housing
Social Museum Collection

Still more plans
"A Seashore Bungalow" (1915)
"A Five-Hundred-Dollar Cottage" (1899)
Woman's Home Companion

"A Complete Small Suburban House" (1907)
"A $3500 Shingle House" (1896)
"A Small House" by Frank Lloyd Wright (1901)
The Ladies' Home Journal

Advertising
"Wonderful Range with Three Ovens...less than four feet long" (1921)
"Now Serving 2,000,000 Homes" (1915)
"Low Fuel Cost" (1903)
Woman's Home Companion

"The Western Electric Toaster"
To Lighten the Labor of Your Home (1919?)

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Food manufacturers and advertisers offered other ways to help women save time in their kitchens.

"The modern housewife has been forced by these industrial and economic changes into even a more responsible position [than that of producer], that of spender and buyer--she has become the purchasing agent of the home and of society," wrote Christine Frederick in The New Housekeeping (1924). "It took manual labour and skill to supply the needs of her family with her own hands fifty years ago; but it takes more thought and intelligence to purchase for the needs of her family by wise expenditure at the present day."

For the text quoted, and for more materials on women as consumers, click the links in the right-hand column below.



Malta-Vita Pure Food Co. advertisement from The Ladies' Home Journal (March 1903).

This advertisement
Entire ad
Woman's Home Companion
Catalog record

More advertising
"Back of every housekeeper" (Campbell's)
"Here's a meal already cooked" (Heinz)
"Perfection" (Quaker Oats)
"Particular people, previous to trying them, always had special soup stock prepared at home" (Libby's Premier Soups)
Woman's Home Companion (1921, 1915, 1900)

Some student observations on
"Back of every housekeeper" (Campbell's)


"A Nutritious Food-Drink" (Horlick's Malted Milk)
"The women hold the health of the entire community" (Shredded Wheat)
The Ladies' Home Journal (1904)

Texts
"Possibilities in Sight"
The Cost of Shelter (1905)

"Nothing to Do in the Home...How far is this true?"
Feminism (1916)

"The Housewife as Purchasing Agent"
The New Housekeeping (1924)

All Consumerism

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Selected Bibliography for
"One Kitchen or Fifty?": Conveniences, Cooperation, Consumption *

Adams, Annmarie. Architecture in the Family Way: Doctors, Houses, and Women, 1870-1900. Buffalo: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996.

This study focuses on England, but Adams discusses parallel trends in the United States and points out some differences. On pages 99-101 she says late nineteenth-century American women "were encouraged to make extensive renovations to their homes, including substantial changes to the plans of their houses." She specifically cites Helen Dodd and her book The Healthful Farmhouse.

Hayden, Dolores. The Grand Domestic Revolution: A History of Feminist Designs for American Homes, Neighborhoods, and Cities. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1981.

In part III, "Cooperative Housekeeping," see especially chapter 4, "Housewives in Harvard Square," where the Cambridge Cooperative Housekeeping Society is featured. The New England Kitchen and the Rumford Kitchen are discussed in part IV, chapter 8, "Public Kitchens, Social Settlements, and the Cooperative Ideal." In part V, "Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Her Influence," see especially chapter 10, "Community Kitchens and Cooked Food Services." And in part VI, "Backlash," see especially chapter 13, "Madame Kollontai and Mrs. Consumer," where Christine Frederick, author of The New Housekeeping, appears on pages 285-289.

McMurry, Sally. Families and Farmhouses in Nineteenth-Century America: Vernacular Design and Social Change. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997.

See chapter 4, "The Spheres Diverge: Work on the Progressive Farmstead, 1855-1885," especially pages 99-104 and 111-118, which describe how kitchen design reflected changes in women's roles, responsibilities, and ambitions.

Wright, Gwendolyn. Moralism and the Model Home: Domestic Architecture and Cultural Conflict in Chicago, 1873-1913. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1980.

Plans published in The Ladies' Home Journal, including those by Frank Lloyd Wright, are discussed on pages 136-140 of chapter 4, "The Homelike World." In chapter 5, "Model Housewives and Model Houses," Mrs. Coleman Stuckert's cooperative housekeeping project and the Rumford Kitchen are included (page 152) in a discussion of the 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exposition.

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Related Learning Standards for
"One Kitchen or Fifty?": Conveniences, Cooperation, Consumption *

Standards: National Center for History in the Schools
Standards: California
Standards: Massachusetts

National Center for History in the Schools National Standards for History
http://nchs.ucla.edu/standards/

Standards in Historical Thinking (Grades 5-12)
STANDARD 3: Historical Analysis and Interpretation


  • Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas, values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences.
  • Consider multiple perspectives of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears.
  • Hold interpretations of history as tentative, subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached.

United States History Standards (Grades 5-12)
ERA 6: The Development of the Industrial United States (1870-1900)


Standard 1: How the rise of corporations, heavy industry, and mechanized farming transformed the American people.
Standard 1A: The student understands the connections among industrialization, the advent of the modern corporation, and material well-being.

  • Explain how organized industrial research produced technological breakthroughs, especially the Bessemer steel process, conversion to electrical power, and telephonic communication, and how these innovations transformed the economy, work processes, and domestic life (5-12).
  • Examine how industrialization made consumer goods more available, increased the standard of living for most Americans, and redistributed wealth (9-12).
Standard 1B: The student understands the rapid growth of cities and how urban life changed.
  • Investigate how urban leaders, such as architects and philanthropists, responded to the challenges of rapid urbanization (7-12).
Standard 3A: The student understands how the "second industrial revolution" changed the nature and conditions of work.
  • Explain the change from workshop to factory and how it altered the worker's world (7-12).
ERA 7: The Emergence of Modern America (1890-1930)

Standard 1C: The student understands the limitations of Progressivism and the alternatives offered by various groups.
  • Specify the issues raised by various women and how mainstream Progressives responded to them (9-12).
Standard 3: How the United States changed from the end of World War I to the eve of the Great Depression.
Standard 3A: The student understands social tensions and their consequences in the postwar era.
  • Analyze how the emergence of the 'New Woman' challenged Victorian values (9-12).
Standard 3B: The student understands how a modern capitalist economy emerged in the 1920s.
  • Explain how principles of scientific management and technological innovations, including assembly lines, rapid transit, household appliances, and radio, continued to transform production, work, and daily life (5-12).
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California History-Social Science Academic Content Standards
www.cde.ca.gov/be/st/ss/

Analysis Skills: Research, Evidence, and Point of View (Grades 6-8)

  • 1. Students frame questions that can be answered by historical study and research.

8.12 Students analyze the transformation of the American economy and the changing social and political conditions in the United States in response to the Industrial Revolution.

  • 5. Examine the location and effects of urbanization, renewed immigration, and industrialization (e.g., the effects on social fabric of cities, wealth and economic opportunity, the conservation movement).

Analysis Skills: Research, Evidence, and Point of View (Grades 9-12)

  • 4. Students construct and test hypotheses; collect, evaluate, and employ information from multiple primary and secondary sources; and apply it in oral and written presentations.

11.5 Students analyze the major political, social, economic, technological, and cultural developments of the 1920s.

  • 4. Analyze the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment and the changing role of women in society.
  • 7. Discuss the rise of mass production techniques, the growth of cities, the impact of new technologies (e.g., the automobile, electricity), and the resulting prosperity and effect on the American landscape.
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Massachusetts History and Social Science Curriculum Framework
www.doe.mass.edu/frameworks/hss/final.pdf

Concepts and Skills (Grades 8-12): History and Geography

  • 8. Interpret the past within its own historical context rather than in terms of present-day norms and values.

Industrial America and Its Emerging Role in International Affairs, 1870-1920

  • USII.2 Explain the important consequences of the Industrial Revolution.

The Age of Reform: Progressivism and the New Deal, 1900-1940

  • USII.9 Analyze the post-Civil War struggles of African Americans and women to gain basic civil rights.
^ UP


* "One Kitchen or Fifty?" is a quote from Mary Hinman Abel, Successful Family Life on the Moderate Income. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott Co., 1921, p. 72.

^ TOP women and socialism, feminist socialists, socialist feminists, community kitchens, cooperative kitchens, public kitchens, domestic architecture, nineteenth- and early twentieth-century house plans, female architects, women architects, women and architecture, feminist architecture, history of feminism, history of socialism, women's history, primary sources for teaching history and social studies, primary sources for history and social studies teachers, primary documents for teaching history and social studies, primary documents for history and social studies teachers